Construction and on-site performance of the LHAASO WFCTA camera

F. Aharonian; Q. An; Axikegu; L. X. Bai; Y. X. Bai; Y. W. Bao; D. Bastieri; X. J. Bi; Y. J. Bi; H. Cai; J. T. Cai; Z. Cao; Z. Cao; J. Chang; J. F. Chang; X. C. Chang; B. M. Chen; J. Chen; L. Chen; L. Chen; L. Chen; M. J. Chen; M. L. Chen; Q. H. Chen; S. H. Chen; S. Z. Chen; T. L. Chen; X. L. Chen; Y. Chen; N. Cheng; Y. D. Cheng; S. W. Cui; X. H. Cui; Y. D. Cui; B. Z. Dai; H. L. Dai; Z. G. Dai; Danzengluobu; D. della Volpe; B. D’Ettorre Piazzoli; X. J. Dong; J. H. Fan; Y. Z. Fan; Z. X. Fan; J. Fang; K. Fang; C. F. Feng; L. Feng; S. H. Feng; Y. L. Feng; B. Gao; C. D. Gao; Q. Gao; W. Gao; M. M. Ge; L. S. Geng; G. H. Gong; Q. B. Gou; M. H. Gu; J. G. Guo; X. L. Guo; Y. Q. Guo; Y. Y. Guo; Y. A. Han; H. H. He; H. N. He; J. C. He; S. L. He; X. B. He; Y. He; M. Heller; Y. K. Hor; C. Hou; X. Hou; H. B. Hu; S. Hu; S. C. Hu; X. J. Hu; D. H. Huang; Q. L. Huang; W. H. Huang; X. T. Huang; Z. C. Huang; F. Ji; X. L. Ji; H. Y. Jia; K. Jiang; Z. J. Jiang; C. Jin; D. Kuleshov; K. Levochkin; B. B. Li; C. Li; C. Li; F. Li; H. B. Li; H. C. Li; H. Y. Li; J. Li; K. Li; W. L. Li; X. Li; X. Li; X. R. Li; Y. Li; Y. Z. Li; Z. Li; Z. Li; E. W. Liang; Y. F. Liang; S. J. Lin; B. Liu; C. Liu; D. Liu; H. Liu; H. D. Liu; J. Liu; J. L. Liu; J. S. Liu; J. Y. Liu; M. Y. Liu; R. Y. Liu; S. M. Liu; W. Liu; Y. N. Liu; Z. X. Liu; W. J. Long; R. Lu; H. K. Lv; B. Q. Ma; L. L. Ma; X. H. Ma; J. R. Mao; A. Masood; W. Mitthumsiri; T. Montaruli; Y. C. Nan; B. Y. Pang; P. Pattarakijwanich; Z. Y. Pei; M. Y. Qi; D. Ruffolo; V. Rulev; A. Sáiz; L. Shao; O. Shchegolev; X. D. Sheng; J. R. Shi; H. C. Song; Yu. V. Stenkin; V. Stepanov; Q. N. Sun; X. N. Sun; Z. B. Sun; P. H. T. Tam; Z. B. Tang; W. W. Tian; B. D. Wang; C. Wang; H. Wang; H. G. Wang; J. C. Wang; J. S. Wang; L. P. Wang; L. Y. Wang; R. N. Wang; W. Wang; W. Wang; X. G. Wang; X. J. Wang; X. Y. Wang; Y. D. Wang; Y. J. Wang; Y. P. Wang; Z. Wang; Z. Wang; Z. H. Wang; Z. X. Wang; D. M. Wei; J. J. Wei; Y. J. Wei; T. Wen; C. Y. Wu; H. R. Wu; S. Wu; W. X. Wu; X. F. Wu; S. Q. Xi; J. Xia; J. J. Xia; G. M. Xiang; G. Xiao; H. B. Xiao; G. G. Xin; Y. L. Xin; Y. Xing; D. L. Xu; R. X. Xu; L. Xue; D. H. Yan; C. W. Yang; F. F. Yang; J. Y. Yang; L. L. Yang; M. J. Yang; R. Z. Yang; S. B. Yang; Y. H. Yao; Z. G. Yao; Y. M. Ye; L. Q. Yin; N. Yin; X. H. You; Z. Y. You; Y. H. Yu; Q. Yuan; H. D. Zeng; T. X. Zeng; W. Zeng; Z. K. Zeng; M. Zha; X. X. Zhai; B. B. Zhang; H. M. Zhang; H. Y. Zhang; J. L. Zhang; J. W. Zhang; L. Zhang; L. Zhang; L. X. Zhang; P. F. Zhang; P. P. Zhang; R. Zhang; S. R. Zhang; S S. Zhang; X. Zhang; X. P. Zhang; Y. Zhang; Y. Zhang; Y. F. Zhang; Y. L. Zhang; B. Zhao; J. Zhao; L. Zhao; L. Z. Zhao; S. P. Zhao; F. Zheng; Y. Zheng; B. Zhou; H. Zhou; J. N. Zhou; P. Zhou; R. Zhou; X. X. Zhou; C. G. Zhu; F. R. Zhu; H. Zhu; K. J. Zhu; X. Zuo

doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-021-09414-z

2023 Impact factor 4.2

Particles and Fields

Open Access

Eur. Phys. J. C (2021) 81: 657
https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-021-09414-z

Regular Article - Experimental Physics

Construction and on-site performance of the LHAASO WFCTA camera

F. Aharonian²⁶^,27, Q. An⁴^,5, Axikegu²⁰, L. X. Bai²¹, Y. X. Bai¹^,3, Y. W. Bao¹⁵, D. Bastieri¹⁰, X. J. Bi¹^,2^,3, Y. J. Bi¹^,3, H. Cai²³, J. T. Cai¹⁰, Z. Cao¹^,2^,3, Z. Cao⁴^,5, J. Chang¹⁶, J. F. Chang¹^,3^,4, X. C. Chang¹^,3, B. M. Chen¹³, J. Chen²¹, L. Chen¹^,2^,3, L. Chen¹⁸, L. Chen²⁰, M. J. Chen¹^,3, M. L. Chen¹^,3^,4, Q. H. Chen²⁰, S. H. Chen¹^,2^,3, S. Z. Chen¹^,3, T. L. Chen²², X. L. Chen¹^,2^,3, Y. Chen¹⁵, N. Cheng¹^,3, Y. D. Cheng¹^,3, S. W. Cui¹³, X. H. Cui⁷, Y. D. Cui¹¹, B. Z. Dai²⁴, H. L. Dai¹^,3^,4, Z. G. Dai¹⁵, Danzengluobu²², D. della Volpe³¹, B. D’Ettorre Piazzoli²⁸, X. J. Dong¹^,3, J. H. Fan¹⁰, Y. Z. Fan¹⁶, Z. X. Fan¹^,3, J. Fang²⁴, K. Fang¹^,3, C. F. Feng¹⁷, L. Feng¹⁶, S. H. Feng¹^,3, Y. L. Feng¹⁶, B. Gao¹^,3, C. D. Gao¹⁷, Q. Gao²², W. Gao¹⁷, M. M. Ge²⁴^bj, L. S. Geng¹^,3, G. H. Gong⁶, Q. B. Gou¹^,3, M. H. Gu¹^,3^,4, J. G. Guo¹^,2^,3, X. L. Guo²⁰, Y. Q. Guo¹^,3, Y. Y. Guo¹^,2^,3^,16, Y. A. Han¹⁴, H. H. He¹^,2^,3, H. N. He¹⁶, J. C. He¹^,2^,3, S. L. He¹⁰, X. B. He¹¹, Y. He²⁰, M. Heller³¹, Y. K. Hor¹¹, C. Hou¹^,3, X. Hou²⁵, H. B. Hu¹^,2^,3, S. Hu²¹, S. C. Hu¹^,2^,3, X. J. Hu⁶, D. H. Huang²⁰, Q. L. Huang¹^,3, W. H. Huang¹⁷, X. T. Huang¹⁷, Z. C. Huang²⁰, F. Ji¹^,3, X. L. Ji¹^,3^,4, H. Y. Jia²⁰, K. Jiang⁴^,5, Z. J. Jiang²⁴, C. Jin¹^,2^,3, D. Kuleshov²⁹, K. Levochkin²⁹, B. B. Li¹³, C. Li¹^,3, C. Li⁴^,5, F. Li¹^,3^,4, H. B. Li¹^,3, H. C. Li¹^,3, H. Y. Li⁵^,16, J. Li¹^,3^,4, K. Li¹^,3, W. L. Li¹⁷, X. Li⁴^,5, X. Li²⁰, X. R. Li¹^,3, Y. Li²¹, Y. Z. Li¹^,2^,3, Z. Li¹^,3, Z. Li⁹, E. W. Liang¹², Y. F. Liang¹², S. J. Lin¹¹, B. Liu⁵, C. Liu¹^,3, D. Liu¹⁷, H. Liu²⁰, H. D. Liu¹⁴, J. Liu¹^,3, J. L. Liu¹⁹, J. S. Liu¹¹, J. Y. Liu¹^,3, M. Y. Liu²², R. Y. Liu¹⁵, S. M. Liu¹⁶, W. Liu¹^,3, Y. N. Liu⁶, Z. X. Liu²¹, W. J. Long²⁰, R. Lu²⁴, H. K. Lv¹^,3, B. Q. Ma⁹, L. L. Ma¹^,3, X. H. Ma¹^,3, J. R. Mao²⁵, A. Masood²⁰, W. Mitthumsiri³², T. Montaruli³¹, Y. C. Nan¹⁷, B. Y. Pang²⁰, P. Pattarakijwanich³², Z. Y. Pei¹⁰, M. Y. Qi¹^,3, D. Ruffolo³², V. Rulev²⁹, A. Sáiz³², L. Shao¹³, O. Shchegolev²⁹^,30, X. D. Sheng¹^,3, J. R. Shi¹^,3, H. C. Song⁹, Yu. V. Stenkin²⁹^,30, V. Stepanov²⁹, Q. N. Sun²⁰, X. N. Sun¹², Z. B. Sun⁸, P. H. T. Tam¹¹, Z. B. Tang⁴^,5, W. W. Tian²^,7, B. D. Wang¹^,3, C. Wang⁸, H. Wang²⁰, H. G. Wang¹⁰, J. C. Wang²⁵, J. S. Wang¹⁹, L. P. Wang¹⁷, L. Y. Wang¹^,3, R. N. Wang²⁰, W. Wang¹¹, W. Wang²³, X. G. Wang¹², X. J. Wang¹^,3, X. Y. Wang¹⁵, Y. D. Wang¹^,3, Y. J. Wang¹^,3, Y. P. Wang¹^,2^,3, Z. Wang¹^,3^,4, Z. Wang¹⁹, Z. H. Wang²¹, Z. X. Wang²⁴, D. M. Wei¹⁶, J. J. Wei¹⁶, Y. J. Wei¹^,2^,3, T. Wen²⁴, C. Y. Wu¹^,3, H. R. Wu¹^,3, S. Wu¹^,3, W. X. Wu²⁰, X. F. Wu¹⁶, S. Q. Xi²⁰, J. Xia⁵^,16, J. J. Xia²⁰, G. M. Xiang²^,18, G. Xiao¹^,3, H. B. Xiao¹⁰, G. G. Xin²³, Y. L. Xin²⁰, Y. Xing¹⁸, D. L. Xu¹⁹, R. X. Xu⁹, L. Xue¹⁷, D. H. Yan²⁵, C. W. Yang²¹, F. F. Yang¹^,3^,4, J. Y. Yang¹¹, L. L. Yang¹¹, M. J. Yang¹^,3, R. Z. Yang⁵, S. B. Yang²⁴, Y. H. Yao²¹, Z. G. Yao¹^,3, Y. M. Ye⁶, L. Q. Yin¹^,3, N. Yin¹⁷, X. H. You¹^,3, Z. Y. You¹^,2^,3, Y. H. Yu¹⁷, Q. Yuan¹⁶, H. D. Zeng¹⁶, T. X. Zeng¹^,3^,4, W. Zeng²⁴, Z. K. Zeng¹^,2^,3, M. Zha¹^,3, X. X. Zhai¹^,3, B. B. Zhang¹⁵, H. M. Zhang¹⁵, H. Y. Zhang¹⁷, J. L. Zhang⁷, J. W. Zhang²¹, L. Zhang¹³, L. Zhang²⁴, L. X. Zhang¹⁰, P. F. Zhang²⁴, P. P. Zhang¹³, R. Zhang⁵^,16, S. R. Zhang¹³, S S. Zhang¹^,3, X. Zhang¹⁵, X. P. Zhang¹^,3, Y. Zhang¹^,3, Y. Zhang¹^,16, Y. F. Zhang²⁰, Y. L. Zhang¹^,3, B. Zhao²⁰, J. Zhao¹^,3, L. Zhao⁴^,5, L. Z. Zhao¹³, S. P. Zhao¹⁶^,17, F. Zheng⁸, Y. Zheng²⁰, B. Zhou¹^,3, H. Zhou¹⁹, J. N. Zhou¹⁸, P. Zhou¹⁵, R. Zhou²¹, X. X. Zhou²⁰, C. G. Zhu¹⁷, F. R. Zhu²⁰, H. Zhu⁷, K. J. Zhu¹^,2^,3^,4, X. Zuo¹^,3 and The LHAASO Collaboration

¹ Key Laboratory of Particle Astrophyics and Experimental Physics Division and Computing Center, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
² University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
³ TIANFU Cosmic Ray Research Center, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
⁴ State Key Laboratory of Particle Detection and Electronics, Beijing, China
⁵ University of Science and Technology of China, 230026, Hefei, Anhui, China
⁶ Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
⁷ National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101, Beijing, China
⁸ National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, China
⁹ School of Physics, Peking University, 100871, Beijing, China
¹⁰ Center for Astrophysics, Guangzhou University, 510006, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
¹¹ School of Physics and Astronomy and School of Physics (Guangzhou), Sun Yat-sen University, 519082, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
¹² School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, 530004, Nanning, Guangxi, China
¹³ Hebei Normal University, 050024, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
¹⁴ School of Physics and Microelectronics, Zhengzhou University, 450001, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
¹⁵ School of Astronomy and Space Science, Nanjing University, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
¹⁶ Key Laboratory of Dark Matter and Space Astronomy, Purple Mountain Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
¹⁷ Institute of Frontier and Interdisciplinary Science, Shandong University, 266237, Qingdao, Shandong, China
¹⁸ Key Laboratory for Research in Galaxies and Cosmology, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 200030, Shanghai, China
¹⁹ Tsung-Dao Lee Institute and School of Physics and Astronomy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200240, Shanghai, China
²⁰ School of Physical Science and Technology and School of Information Science and Technology, Southwest Jiaotong University, 610031, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
²¹ College of Physics, Sichuan University, 610065, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
²² Key Laboratory of Cosmic Rays (Tibet University), Ministry of Education, 850000, Lhasa, Tibet, China
²³ School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, 430072, Wuhan, Hubei, China
²⁴ School of Physics and Astronomy, Yunnan University, 650091, Kunming, Yunnan, China
²⁵ Yunnan Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 650216, Kunming, Yunnan, China
²⁶ Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 31 Fitzwilliam Place, 2 Dublin, Ireland
²⁷ Max-Planck-Institut for Nuclear Physics, P.O. Box 103980, 69029, Heidelberg, Germany
²⁸ Dipartimento di Fisica dell’Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant’Angelo, via Cinthia, 80126, Naples, Italy
²⁹ Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Sciences, 117312, Moscow, Russia
³⁰ Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, 141700, Moscow, Russia
³¹ Département de Physique Nucléaire et Corpusculaire, Faculté de Sciences, Université de Genève, 24 Quai Ernest Ansermet, 1211, Geneva, Switzerland
³² Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 10400, Bangkok, Thailand

^bj gemaomao@ynu.edu.cn

Received: 22 December 2020
Accepted: 3 July 2021
Published online: 27 July 2021

Abstract

The focal plane camera is the core component of the Wide Field-of-view Cherenkov/fluorescence Telescope Array (WFCTA) of the Large High-Altitude Air Shower Observatory (LHAASO). Because of the capability of working under moonlight without aging, silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) have been proven to be not only an alternative but also an improvement to conventional photomultiplier tubes (PMT) in this application. Eighteen SiPM-based cameras with square light funnels have been built for WFCTA. The telescopes have collected more than 100 million cosmic ray events and preliminary results indicate that these cameras are capable of working under moonlight. The characteristics of the light funnels and SiPMs pose challenges (e.g. dynamic range, dark count rate, assembly techniques). In this paper, we present the design features, manufacturing techniques and performances of these cameras. Finally, the test facilities, the test methods and results of SiPMs in the cameras are reported here.

M. M. Ge and S. S. Zhang equally contributed to this work.

© The Author(s) 2021

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