https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-025-14847-x
Regular Article - Theoretical Physics
Phenomenology of bubble size distributions in a first-order phase transition
1
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2505 Correa Rd., 96822, Honolulu, HI, USA
2
Department of Physics and CTC, National Tsing Hua University, 300, Hsinchu, Taiwan
3
Physics Division, National Center for Theoretical Sciences, 106319, Taipei, Taiwan
a
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Received:
11
April
2025
Accepted:
23
September
2025
Published online:
14
October
2025
In a cosmological first-order phase transition (FOPT), the true and false vacuum bubble radius distributions are not expected to be monochromatic, as is usually assumed. Consequently, Fermi balls (FBs) and primordial black holes (PBHs) produced in a dark FOPT will have extended mass distributions. We show how gravitational wave (GW), microlensing and Hawking evaporation signals for extended bubble radius/mass distributions deviate from the case of monochromatic distributions. The peak of the GW spectrum is shifted to lower frequencies, and the spectrum is broadened at frequencies below the peak frequency. Thus, the radius distribution of true vacuum bubbles introduces another uncertainty in the evaluation of the GW spectrum from a FOPT. The extragalactic gamma-ray signal at AMEGO-X/e-ASTROGAM from PBH evaporation may evince a break in the power-law spectrum between 5 MeV and 10 MeV for an extended PBH mass distribution. Optical microlensing surveys may observe PBH mass distributions with average masses below 
, which is not possible for monochromatic mass distributions. This expands the FOPT parameter space that can be explored with microlensing.
© The Author(s) 2025
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